Isaiah’s New Heavens and New Earth (Part 4): The Temple, the Tremblers, and True and False Worship
By Robert E. Cruickshank, Jr. with Daniel E. Harden
Daniel E. Harden (Editor)
Copyright © Robert E. Cruickshank, Jr. (May 8, 2025)
All Rights Reserved
“This is what the Lord says: ‘Heaven is My throne and the earth is the footstool for My feet. Where then is a house you could build for Me? And where is a place that I may rest?” (Isaiah 66:1).
As we saw in the last article, Isaiah 65 leaves off with a picture of Israel during the restoration period after the return from exile. God’s people were being serviced and sustained by the surrounding nations after their enemies had been overcome and defeated. Isaiah conveys this by using a Biblical metaphor based on the original creation account in Genesis (Gen. 3:14). “Dust,” he says, “shall be the serpent’s food” (Isa. 65:25).
In this regard, the prophet follows the lead of the Psalmist and his contemporary Micah, who both used this same idiom in a similar fashion (Ps. 72:9-11; Mic. 7:17). For Isaiah, the image of the serpents eating dust specifically captures the essence of Zerubbabel’s detractors once their plans had been thwarted and the temple was rebuilt – with the full support and funding of the Persian Empire.
Fittingly, chapter 66 opens with God proclaiming His control – Heaven is my throne and earth is the footstool for my feet. Nothing in heaven above or on the earth below can constrain or restrict Him.
Isaiah’s prophecy then applies this to the temple. “Where is the house you would build me?” and “Where is the place of my rest?” In other words, by using these rhetorical questions, God is telling those who would return that He does expect them to rebuild the temple, but simply rebuilding wouldn’t be enough. He also expects them to understand what that rebuilt temple is and isn’t all about. In short, He expects them to not fall into the same mistakes as their ancestors had with the first temple, by focusing more on the temple and the rituals than on God Himself. Ultimately, He is larger than any temple or physical structure.
To Build or Not to Build: What is Isaiah Saying?
With that said, some actually see Isaiah 66:1 as Isaiah opposing the future plans of rebuilding the temple after its destruction.[1] However, this would put Isaiah at odds not only with the future prophets Haggai and Zechariah, but with himself as well. God wasn’t opposed to His temple. He was opposed to a false view of the temple and the false worship that took place in the temple during the time of the apostate generations.
Earlier in his prophecy, Isaiah anticipates the day when God will once again be glorified in His “glorious house” (Isa. 60:7). His “sanctuary” would be beautified (Isa. 60:13), after the current “holy and beautiful house where our fathers praised thee has been burned with fire” (Isa. 64:11). Isaiah looked forward to the day when even “foreigners” would “join themselves to the Lord” (Isa. 56:6), and the new and improved temple would be “a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:7).[2] Opposing the building of the future temple would make Isaiah a schizophrenic prophet while also clashing with the later prophets.
This is not at all the case.
Much to the contrary, Isaiah 66:1 is an uplifting verse, providing the returnees with leadership and direction. He was projecting neither an accusation nor a reproval of the Temple-building effort. A Biblically consistent approach sees Isaiah’s statement as a call to the future returnees to rebuild with a proper understanding of the true nature and purpose of the temple. At the same time, it is also a rebuke of the present generation’s misunderstanding in this same regard.
Isaiah’s pronouncement was “directed against a too materialistic understanding of the deity and the location of the deity,” writes Joseph Blenkinsopp, “reflecting the same concern as in Solomon’s prayer at the dedication of the first temple: ‘Will God indeed dwell on earth? Heaven itself, the highest heaven, cannot contain you, how much less this house I have built?’ (1 Kgs 8.27).”[3] As Isaiah had said in chapter 60, God’s “glorious house” (Isa. 60:7) on earth is merely “the place” of His “feet” (Isa. 60:13). This theme is prevalent in the Old Testament (1 Chr. 28.2; Ps. 99.5; 132.7; Lam. 2.1) and echoed in the New Testament, as well (Matt. 5:35).[4]
Recognizing Isaiah’s intent also helps us recognize that Isaiah’s statement, here in 66:1, reflects the whole warp and woof of the direction in which redemptive history was moving – away from the external and toward the internal, as it progresses from the physical to the spiritual. As Jesus told the Samaritan woman in answer to her question about which temple was the true temple, He replied that the Jewish location in Jerusalem was the correct one (Jn. 4:22), but pretty soon it wouldn’t matter either way. The “hour is coming and now is,” He tells her, “when the true worshipers will worship God in Spirit and truth” (Jn. 4:23).
From Temples to Trembling
The true worshipers whom Jesus referred to in His day were foreshadowed by the returning exiles of Ezra’s day – the very exiles whom Isaiah looked forward to in his day. After denouncing those whose focal point was the flamboyant externalities and rituals of the first temple in his time, Isaiah looks ahead to those who would make the Lord the focal point of the second temple in a new time. In the next verse, he says:
“For My hand made all these things, So all these things came into being,” declares the Lord. ‘But I will look to this one, At one who is humble and contrite in spirit, and who trembles (ha’red) at My word’” (Isa. 66:2).
Verse 2 mentions those who are humble and contrite, and who “tremble” (ha’red) at God’s word. Isaiah mentions those who “tremble” (ha’red) again in verse 5. His word choice here is key to properly understanding the time of the prophecy’s fulfillment. At first glance and reading from English translations, however, the significance of trembling at God’s word doesn’t necessarily seem to point to any particular period in Israel’s history. After all, the idea or concept of trembling before the Lord is almost commonplace in the Old Testament. How does this point, specifically, to the return from exile?
In Psalm 96, for example, God’s people are called to “worship the Lord in splendor” and “tremble before Him” (Ps. 96:9). In Psalm 114, all the earth is called to “tremble before the Lord” (Ps. 114:7). This is a fairly common theme and these passages use a fairly common Hebrew word for “tremble” (chul).[5] In contrast, however, the word “tremble” (ha’red) in Isaiah 66:2 and 5 is more pointed and indicative, and its usage distinctly and specifically dovetails with the restoration period after the exile.
As has been pointed out in a previous article,[6] “tremble” (ha’red) is a rare word used sparsely and sparingly in the Old Testament. It occurs only 6 times total,[7] with two of those times being here in Isaiah 66. Of the other 4 occurrences, the specific form of the word that Isaiah uses is only found elsewhere in two other places – Ezra 9:4 and 10:13.[8] According to Gesenius’ Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon, this form of the word carries the additional nuance of reverence.[9] Putting two and two together, the fact that Isaiah refers to the group of the faithful as those who “tremble” (ha’red) at God’s word (Isa. 66:2, 5) is a “clear indication” of a connection between “Ezra/Nehemiah” and the group prophesied about in Isaiah.[10]
As Marvin Sweeney observes, “the entire book of Isaiah… underlies the reform program of Ezra and Nehemiah.”[11] As such, Ezra’s word choice in Ezra 9:4 and 10:13 is careful, deliberate, and meant to telegraph the fact that Isaiah’s prophecy was being fulfilled in his day. The “terminological correspondence” between Isaiah 66:2, 5 and Ezra 9:4 and 10:13, writes Ulrich Berges, is “hardly mere coincidence” and deals with the “contemporary events” of Ezra’s time.[12]
Additionally, Isaiah says that those who “tremble” (ha’red) do so upon hearing “the word of God,” specifically, in Isaiah 66:2 and 5. They “tremble” (ha’red) after God’s word is heard. “Only in Ezra 9:4 and 10:3,” writes John Watts, “are these words otherwise used to describe the faithful in Jerusalem.”[13]
In Ezra 9:4, Ezra and others “trembled (ha’rad) at the words of the God of Israel,” on account of the faithlessness of some of their fellow exiles, and “sat appalled until the evening sacrifice.” Ezra then offers an intercessory prayer of confession (Ezra 9:5-15), upon which all the people then threw themselves down before the temple that Zerubbabel had built and “wept bitterly” (Ezra 10:1). Following this, they then committed to enacting the Restoration Covenant (Ezra 10:2). The repentant people are characterized as “those who tremble (ha’rad) at the commandment of our God” (Ezra 10:3). These passages in Ezra (Ezra 9:4; 10:3) clearly echo the passages in Isaiah (Isa. 66:2, 5), as the precise form of the rare word ha’rad (to tremble with reverence)[14] is only used by these two authors, and in both Isaiah and Ezra, the trembling is pointedly and emphatically in reaction to hearing God’s word.
In short, the returning, repentant exiles of Ezra’s day were the ones prophesied about in Isaiah’s day. Unlike the apostate, unrepentant generation sent into exile, the repentant, retuning generation of exiles amended their ways – trembling when they heard what God had to say.
Ears to Hear or Not to Hear?
Unlike the future generation of returnees who would “tremble” (ha’rad) in reverence when they heard God’s word, the current generation of Isaiah’s day would not listen, and their ears were dull. In 66:4, Isaiah repeats what he said back in verse 65:12.
I will destine you for the sword,
And all of you will bow down to the slaughter.
Because I called, but you did not answer;
I spoke, but you did not listen.
Instead, you did evil in My sight
And chose that in which I did not delight” (Isa. 65:12).So I will choose their punishments
And bring on them what they dread.
Because I called, but no one answered;
I spoke, but they did not listen.
Instead, they did evil in My sight
And chose that in which I did not delight” (Isa. 66:4).
The pattern is exactly the same, and the context is exactly the same. Punishment will be meted out because they didn’t answer when God called, they didn’t listen when He spoke, they did evil in His sight, and they chose the things in which He did not delight. As pointed out in the last installment in this series, Isaiah contrasts this with the future returnees, saying: “…before they call, I will answer; and while they are still speaking, I will hear” (Isa. 65:24).[15] And as just pointed out above, this was definitely true in Ezra’s day, as those who returned from exile trembled in reverence to God’s voice, rather than turning a deaf ear to His voice – like the previous generations who were taken into exile had done.
Mixing and Matching their Gods
Looping back to verse 3, Isaiah circles back to his earlier theme of denouncing the pagan practices that would send them into exile. These are the very things that made their ears dull and would bring about their fall.
“But the one who slaughters an ox is like one who kills a person;
The one who sacrifices a lamb is like one who breaks a dog’s neck;
One who offers a grain offering is like one who offers pig’s blood;
One who burns incense is like one who blesses an idol.
As they have chosen their own ways,
And their souls delight in their abominations” (Isa. 66:3).
The astute reader will quickly notice that the word “like” is in italics every time it’s used in this verse in some versions.[16] When translators do this, they are being honest and letting the reader know that the particular word being used is not there in the original text. In other words, Isaiah’s original audience would have read the sentence this way: “The one who slaughters an ox IS the one who kills a person.”[17] As Lena-Sofia Tiemeyer explains:
“The syntax of verse 3 is best understood as containing four sets of subjects and predicates: ‘The one who does X (also) does Y.’ The person who performs the legitimate ritual act (X) is the same as the one who performs the illegitimate acts (Y). Verse 3 thus describes a situation where the person who slaughters an ox (also) kills a man, the one who sacrifices a lamb (also) breaks a dog’s neck, the one who presents a cereal offering (also) offers swine’s blood, and the one who makes a memorial offering of incense (also) worships idols. As to the identity of these people, the priesthood is the natural choice, as they would be the only ones who were able to perform the legitimate rituals.”[18]
This would indicate that the same Hebrew priests who were sacrificing oxen to Yahweh were also murderers.[19] Christophe Nihan puts it this way: “…the verse should then be translated as follows (according to the MT): ‘The slaughterer of oxen kills a man, / the sacrificer of sheep breaks a dog’s neck, / the offerer of (cereal) offerings offers swine’s blood, / the offerer of incense blesses an idol.’[20] Isaiah charges “the priests currently serving in the temple with practicing various abominations,” thereby profaning the “task entrusted to them.”[21] As to whether the apostate priests were in fact murderers, one only needs to read of the many instances where Israelite children were sacrificed to Baal and Molech to see how this played out.[22]
Basically, the apostate Israelites were mixing and matching their gods, as if they felt the need to cover all their bases. Ultimately, however, it reflected a lack of reliance on God.
The Dog Days of Ancient Times
The next line in verse 3 is a picture-perfect example of this mix and match. Taking the translators’ imposed “like” out of the sentence once again, Isaiah says, “He who sacrifices a lamb IS the one who breaks a dog’s neck.”
Regarding this, it is well-recognized among scholars that dogs were associated with “chthonic deities” in ancient times.[23] Archaeologists routinely “discover animal bones” in cultic contexts within temple complexes.[24] One of the most significant examples was the discovery of the massive dog graves within the Temple of Isis in Egypt.[25] The fact that the ancient Israelites were not immune to this cultic practice of their neighbors was confirmed by the “graves of dogs with broken necks” discovered in “Tel Haror (Israel).”[26]
In the first article in this series, we observed how ancient Israel’s necromancy problem was highlighted and condemned in Isaiah 65:3-4.[27] Trying to contact the dead via rituals and ceremonies in gardens and secret places was among the “former (ri’shon) things” that wouldn’t be remembered in the “new heavens and new earth” after the exile was over (Isa. 65:7, 16, 17). With that said, the association of the pagan deity Hecate, “the goddess of ghosts and purifications,”[28] highlights the connection between necromancy and dog rituals and makes sense out of Isaiah’s words here in the context of his time.[29]
As Rick Strelan says, “The association of Hecate with dogs” is well-known and “needs little elaboration.”[30] Her cult was “widespread” and particularly “popular” in the ancient world – continuing even into New Testament times in the area of “Asia Minor,”[31] especially in Ephesus.[32] She is usually pictured with two ghost hounds as her servants, the hound is her sacrificial animal, and she is represented as having a dog’s head.[33] Strelan elaborates on the association of this chthonic goddess with canines:
“In the magical papyri, Hecate is known as the dog lover (4.2813) and leader of the dog-packs (4.2722). She is invoked while the dogs howl (4.2260), and howls herself like a dog (4.2549); she has a voice like a dog’s bark (4.2810); and she is a dog who can assume the form of a maiden (4.2251). Simply, Lady Hecate of the Crossroads is a black dog (4.1434), and in some spells, pitch-and-wax images of dogs are to be made along with invocations to Hecate who is attended by the ghostly pack (4.1876-1926, 2944-66).”[34]
All of this sounds bizarre to our modern ears, and indeed, bizarre it was. But these were the sorts of things that God’s people were messing with, which messed them up, and got them into a mess (i.e., the exile). Along with other pagan practices like offering “swine’s blood” and blessing “idols,” these are the cultic ritual customs for which the Lord says, “…they have chosen their ways, and their soul delights in the abominations” (Isa. 66:3). For this, God would “chose their punishments and bring on them what they dread” (Isa. 66:4).
Keeping it “Relevant” by Keeping the Original “Relevance”
With that said, it is imperative to stress the fact that most of these practices that Isaiah notes that were prevalent in his day were absent in Judah after the restoration, as well as in New Testament times. These overtly pagan practices vanished after the Jews returned from exile. This squarely pinpoints the people to whom Isaiah was speaking.
This is important to note because many try to warp-speed Isaiah’s prophecy to modern times or even New Testament times. In each case, however, Isaiah’s concerns and context don’t match the time in question. The Jews of today aren’t sacrificing to Molech and Baal, nor are they breaking dogs’ necks trying to contact the dead. Neither were the Jews of Jesus’s day.
We must keep in mind that audience relevance is just as relevant in the Old Testament as it is in the New Testament. And that’s extremely relevant for us as well when we’re reading either Testament.
As we’ve seen so far in this study, the context of Isaiah 65-66 constantly and continually points us in the direction of the exile, the reasons for the exile, and the return from exile as the backdrop for these chapters. The verses considered in this article are no exception, as Isaiah continues to contrast the apostates taken into exile with the faithful remnant returning home from exile.
Recap
Isaiah 66:1 is not a rejection of temple rebuilding but a call to understand the temple’s true nature, function, and purpose. Isaiah affirms God’s transcendence above any physical structure. While the temple should be rebuilt after the return from exile, true worship must be internal, humble, and reverent. Isaiah wants to make sure that the future returnees know this, as opposed to those of his day who had turned a blind eye and a deaf ear to the Lord.
The connections between Isaiah’s message and the post-exilic period can also be seen by focusing on the rare Hebrew word ha’red (“tremble”), which links Isaiah 66:2, 5 with Ezra 9:4 and 10:3. The faithful returnees (the tremblers) fulfilled Isaiah’s prophecy through heartfelt repentance and reverence for God’s word.
Isaiah continues to follow his pattern of comparison and contrast between the apostates (those to be taken into exile) and the faithful (those who would return from exile).
He continues to contrast the disobedience and idolatry of the apostate generation in his day with the obedience and loyalty of the coming generation beginning with Zerubbabel’s day.
And Isaiah continues to condemn participation in pagan rituals, including necromancy and animal sacrifices tied to cultic deities. Isaiah’s prophecy is a forward-looking call to worship God in spirit and truth, while also foreshadowing New Testament times, and leaving the sins of the exiled generation behind.
Takeaways for Today
As New Testament believers, we want to emulate the behavior of those who returned from exile and not those who were taken into exile. The apostate generation lost sight of the original intent, and focused instead on the external and the physical. The returnees were called upon to focus on the internal and the spiritual.
Today, there is no external or physical temple – as we are the true and final temple on earth. It is all about Christ in us and us in Christ. With this in mind, we should not be mesmerized with materialism or fads. The Body of Christ is not a building, and “God does not dwell in temples made with hands” (Acts 7:48: 17:24). While there is nothing inherently wrong with nice buildings and beautiful architecture, we’ve constructed our own “temples” if we lose sight of what the Body of Christ is really all about.
With regard to the pagan worship practices of the apostate generation, it should go without saying that believers have no business dabbling into forms of “spirituality” that don’t conform to the dictates of God’s word. He, and He alone, is the God of gods and the Lord of lords. His word teaches us to refrain from focusing on the material and instead to focus on what is truly spiritual – as opposed to the counterfeits or trappings. Keep your focus on the Most High God.
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[1] For example, Paul Hanson writes, “…one might expect to find Haggai in close alliance with the visionary group expressing its aspirations in Isaiah 56-66. Deeper probing, however, leads us to quite the opposite conclusion. In Isaiah 66:1-2, we have a direct repudiation of the temple building campaign of Haggai: ‘What is this house which you would build for me?” (Paul Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975]): 173-74.
[2] This all actually happened in the days of the restoration. As a result of the Jewish victory over Haman and his forces, and the decree of King Ahaseurus, people throughout the whole of Persia became Jews (Esther 8:17).
[3] Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Trito-Isaiah [Isaiah 56-66] and the gôlāh group of Ezra, Shecaniah, and Nehemiah (Ezra 7-Nehemiah 13): Is there a connection?” ( Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 43.4 [2019]):671-672)
[4] In Matthew, it is “the earth,” where the earthly temple is located, that is the “footstool of His feet,” and Jerusalem in the “city of the great king” (Matt. 5:35), while God’s actual “throne” remains in “heaven” (Matt. 5:34).
[5] According to STEP Bible (Tyndale House), this word occurs 56 times in the OT and means “tremble/fear:
to twist, whirl, dance, writhe, fear, tremble, travail, be in anguish, be pained.”
[6] Robert E. Cruickshank, Jr., Isaiah 66:8 in 1948? Dispensationalism’s Warp Speed Hermeneutic – The Burros of Berea https://bit.ly/43dDTNh
[7] According to STEP Bible (Tyndale House).
[8] Specifically, it is “in the participial form with reference to a plurality only in Isa. 66.2,5 and in Ezra 9.4 and 10.3” (Blenkinsopp, “Trito-Isaiah,” 672).
[9] Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon agrees, giving it a nuance of “awe and reverence”. This sense of awe and reverence is missing in the more common form of the word, ha’red, used elsewhere in the Old Testament.
[10] Berges, Ulrich. “Trito-Isaiah and the Reforms of Ezra/Nehemiah: Consent or Conflict?.” Biblica 98.2 (2017): 179.
[11] Melugin, Roy F., and Marvin A. Sweeney, eds., New visions of Isaiah (Sheffield, England: Bloomsbury Publishing/ Sheffield Academic Press, [1996] 1997): 22.
[12] Ulrich, “Trito-Isaiah,” 174.
[13] John DW Watts, Word biblical commentary/25 Isaiah 34-66 (Grand Rapids, MI Zondervan, 2021): 932.
[14] See the work referenced back Blenkinsopp (footnote 11 above) for the technical details on the Hebrew here.
[15] Robert E. Cruickshank, Jr., with Daniel E. Harden, Isaiah’s New Heavens and New Earth (Part 3): Wolves and Lambs, Serpents and Dust, and the Chosen Young Man – The Burros of Berea https://bit.ly/4mgjdvQ
[16] This is evident in versions like the New American Standard Bible. In various other versions, such as the New King James Version, the word is “as” instead of “like”, but is likewise italicized, since the word does not actually appear in the original Hebrew text. This is only evident for the reader with versions that italicize words added for clarity. Many versions, such as the New International Version and the English Standard Version, do not italicize when they add words for clarity in English. Ultimately, these word additions for clarity are used in the opinion and discretion of the interpreter.
[17] As Gary V. Smith writes, “An alternative and better approach is not to add any connectors (“like, as”) between these participles; thus, rather than comparing one evil act to another, the statement is suggesting that the same person does all of these things. The main criticism is that people sacrifice both legitimate and illegitimate sacrifices because they have accepted the syncretistic religious rituals of Judah as well as pagan practices (57:3-13; 65:2-7). Thus the main goal is not to condemn legitimate sacrifices or sacrificial ritual in general, just the foolish acts of an impure person who does not distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate sacrifices” (Gary V. Smith, The New American Commentary, Isaiah 40-66 [Vol. 15b]): 270.
[18]Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia. “Hope and Disappointment: The Judahite Critique of the Exilic Leadership in Isaiah 56–66.” New Perspectives on Old Testament Prophecy and History, Brill :67.
[19] This sentiment is reflected in other commentaries as well. For example, in The Old Testament Library commentary on this verse, Claus Westermann calls it “is polemic against a form of syncretism” and that “regular sacrifice to Yahweh are still offered”, while at the same time “loathsome anal cults are practiced alongside them.” He also noted that according to Justin, Darius forbade offering human sacrifices and eating the flesh of dogs (Westermann, Claus, The Old Testament Library, Isaiah 40-66 [1969]:489).
[20] Christophe Nihan, “Ethnicity and Identity in Isaiah 56–66,” in Lipschits, Oded, Gary N. Knoppers, and Manfred Oeming, eds. Judah and the Judeans in the Achaemenid Period: Negotiating identity in an international context (Penn State Press, 2011): 88.
[21] Christophe Nihan, “Ethnicity and Identity in Isaiah 56–66,” 88.
[22] E.g., Lev 18:21, Lev 20:2–5, Deut 12:31, Deut 18:10, 2Kgs 16:3, 2Kgs 17:17, 2Kgs 21:6, 2Kgs 23:10, 2Chr 28:3, Jer 7:31, Jer 19:5, Jer 32:35, Ezek 16:20–21, Ezek 20:31, Ps 106:37–38.
[23] Jędrzejczak, Andrzej Łukasz. ” Breaking a Dog’s Neck” as a Metaphor for Oppressing the Weak. An Exegetical-Historical Analysis of the Expression ערף כלב (Isa 66: 3).” The Biblical Annals 15.1 (2025): 99.
[24] Jędrzejczak, “Breaking a Dog’s Neck,” 99.
[25] Jędrzejczak, “Breaking a Dog’s Neck,” 99.
[26] Jędrzejczak, “Breaking a Dog’s Neck,” 100.
[27] Robert E. Cruickshank, Jr., with Daniel E. Harden, Isaiah’s New Heavens and New Earth (Part 1): Former Things and New Things – The Burros of Berea https://bit.ly/3XZP9tQ
[28] Nilsson, M. A HISTORY OF GREEK RELIGION. 2nd ed., Westport, CT Greenwood, 1980, p. 204.
[29] See also Lewis, Theodore J. Cults of the dead in ancient Israel and Ugarit: Harvard Semitic Monographs, Number 39 (Atalanta, GA: Scholars Press/Brill, 2019) and M.H. Pope “The Cult of the Dead at Ugarit,” in G .D . Young ed., Ugarit in Retrospect (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1981) for extensive treatments of the common role of dogs at funeral feasts and necromancy rituals among the diverse religions and cults of the ANE. This was wide-spread and cross cultural.
[30] Strelan, Rick. ” Outside Are the Dogs and the Sorcerers (Revelation 22: 15).” Biblical Theology Bulletin 33.4 (2003): 154.
[31] Price, Theodora Hadzisteliou. Kourotrophos: cults and representations of the Greek nursing deities. Vol. 8. Brill, 2023: 204.
[32] Aurenhammer, M. (1995). Sculptures of Gods and Heroes from Ephesos. Pp. 251-80 in EPHESOS, ETROPOLIS OF ASIA: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO ITS ARCHAEOLOGY, RELIGION, AND CULTURE, edited by H. Koester (Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press International): 257-258.
[33] Strelan, “Outside are the Dogs,” 154-155.
[34] Strelan, “Outside are the Dogs,” 154-155.
